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  "assumptions": [
    "Ideal diodes (zero forward drop; no reverse recovery)",
    "Rectified-waveform model: no reservoir capacitor; Vavg is the pulsed-sine average",
    "Capacitor-smoothed model: constant-current discharge; Vdc_est ≈ Vpeak − ΔV/2",
    "Continuous-conduction ripple approximation ΔV ≈ I/(f_ripple·C)",
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  "limitations": [
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    "Vavg is the unfiltered rectified-sine average, not capacitor-smoothed DC bus voltage",
    "Capacitor model uses continuous-discharge ΔV≈I/(f_ripple·C); when ΔV≥Vpeak, Vdc_est and Vmin are withheld (model_validity.valid=false)"
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    "I without C, or C without I → NEEDS_TWO_INPUTS",
    "C≤0 or f_line≤0 or I≤0 (when capacitor model) → VALUE_MUST_BE_POSITIVE",
    "ripple_Vpp ≥ Vpeak → RIPPLE_EXCEEDS_PEAK; Vdc_est and Vmin withheld (model_validity.valid=false)"
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      "title": "Texas Instruments — A Design Review of a Full-Featured 350-W Offline Power Supply (TIDU186)",
      "section": "Figure 4 — ideal bridge / half-wave average and RMS",
      "url": "https://www.ti.com/lit/ug/tidu186/tidu186.pdf",
      "supports": "Vavg_full=2Vp/π; Vavg_half=Vp/π; Vrms_full=Vac; Vrms_half=Vac/√2",
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      "title": "Analog Devices — Diode Applications, Rectifier Output Smoothing",
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      "supports": "ΔV≈I/(f_ripple·C); full-wave ripple frequency is 2·f_line",
      "kind": "reference"
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      "title": "IEC 60050 — International Electrotechnical Vocabulary",
      "section": "Electronic power conversion (IEV 551-11-02)",
      "url": "https://www.electropedia.org/iev/iev.nsf/display?openform&ievref=551-11-02",
      "supports": "Change of voltage/frequency characteristics (including zero frequency / DC) by electronic valve devices — terminology only, not the Vavg/ripple formulas",
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      "accessed": "2026-09-05",
      "clause": "IEV 551-11-02"
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      "title": "IEC 60050 — International Electrotechnical Vocabulary",
      "section": "Semiconductor diode (IEV 521-04-03)",
      "url": "https://www.electropedia.org/iev/iev.nsf/display?openform&ievref=521-04-03",
      "supports": "Two-terminal semiconductor device with asymmetrical V–I characteristic (ideal-diode model on this page ignores forward drop)",
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      "accessed": "2026-09-05",
      "clause": "IEV 521-04-03"
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